Can Us Patent 6098810 Be Used to Separate Quartx From Feldspar

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• Published: 26 September 2018

Rock magnetism of quartz and feldspars chemically separated from pelagic red clay: a new approach to provenance study

• Takaya Shimonoⁱⁱ &
• Toshitsugu Yamazaki³

Earth, Planets and Space volume lxx, Commodity number:153 (2018) Cite this article

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Abstruse

Magnetic mineral inclusions in silicates are widespread in sediments as well as in igneous rocks. Because they are isolated from surrounding environment, they have potential to preserve original magnetic signature fifty-fifty in chemically altered sediments. Such inclusions may provide proxies to help differentiating the source of the host silicate. We measure magnetism of quartz and feldspars separated past chemical digestion of pelagic red clay. The samples are from the upper 15 one thousand of sediments recovered at Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Site U1366 in the South Pacific Whorl. The quartz and feldspars account for 2.three–22.7 wt% of the samples. X-ray diffraction analyses detect both plagioclase feldspar and potassium feldspar. Plagioclase is albite-rich and arable in the summit ~ seven.4 m of the core. Potassium feldspar mainly occurs below ~ ten.4 thou. The authorisation of albite-rich plagioclase differs from a previous investigation of coarser fraction of sediments from the South Pacific. Saturation isothermal remanence (SIRM) intensities of the quartz and feldspars are 7.45 × x⁻⁴ to 1.98 × 10⁻³ Am²/kg, accounting for less than ane.02% of the SIRM of the untreated majority samples. The depth variations of the silicate mineralogy and the previously reported geochemical cease-member contributions point that quartz and/or plagioclase in a higher place eight.26 1000 is probable to be Australian dust. In contrast, the relative abundance and the magnetic properties of quartz and feldspars vary below 10.42 thou, without clear correlation with geochemical terminate-member contributions. We consider that these changes trace a subdivision of the volcanic component. Our results demonstrate that magnetism of inclusions can reveal additional data of mineral provenance, and chemical separation is an essential approach to reveal the ecology magnetic data carried by magnetic inclusions.

Introduction

Provenance of the eolian component in pelagic sediments can constrain long-term change in the wind direction over the oceans and climate condition on land (east.yard., Leinen and Heath 1981; Kyte et al. 1993; Rea 1994; Grousset and Biscaye 2005). Most frequently, geochemical methods such as isotopic composition have been employed to characterize the eolian component (east.g., Nakai et al. 1993; Asahara et al. 1999; Pettke et al. 2000; Stancin et al. 2008; Hyeong et al. 2016). Analysis of major, trace, and rare globe element concentrations in bulk sediments combined with multivariate statistical modeling is also an effective approach to distinguishing multiple eolian sources to the sediments (e.m., Leinen and Heath 1981; Kyte et al. 1993; Dunlea et al. 2015a). The composition of sediments is compared with modernistic surface sediments and/or known grit sources to "fingerprint" the sediments and to estimate the source. For example, relatively higher 87Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd ratios are often correlated with erstwhile, felsic continental source such every bit Asian and Australian dust relative to immature, mafic volcanic source such every bit arc volcanoes. Although such geochemical fingerprinting is a powerful tool, the correlation with specific source is empirical, especially for ancient sediments. Therefore, information technology is recommended to combine multiple proxies to heighten the reliability and accurately narrate the eolian component (Grousset and Biscaye 2005).

Magnetic backdrop take also been used to constrain the provenance of magnetic minerals in fluvial sediments (Oldfield et al. 1985), loess (Maher et al. 2009; Liu et al. 2015), marine sediments (Bloemendal et al. 1992), and ice cores (Lanci et al. 2008). Magnetism records rich information well-nigh abundance, composition, grain size, and grain shape of magnetic minerals, that can differentiate the provenance (e.g., Thompson and Oldfield 1986; Liu et al. 2012). Complexity arises, however, as the magnetic mineralogy of sediments can exist modified during transport and afterward deposition (e.g., Maher 2011). On land, new magnetic minerals may be formed as ultrafine hematite coating in arid area (Potter and Rossman 1979) or pedogenic magnetic minerals (Zhou et al. 1990). Within sedimentary column, Fe-oxides often undergo reductive dissolution or oxidation depending on the redox condition of the sediments (east.1000., Roberts 2015). There is bear witness that new magnetic authigenic and biogenic minerals may grade via microbial activity (Petersen et al. 1986; Stolz et al. 1986; Lovley et al. 1987). Although these changes in magnetic mineralogy acquit paleoenvironmental information, they often destroy or mask the principal source characteristics of the eolian component. Consequently, successful applications of magnetism to the provenance study mostly come from recent or 4th materials, where minimal modification of magnetic minerals is expected.

Several studies demonstrated that sediments contain silicate-hosted magnetic mineral inclusions (Hounslow and Maher 1996; Caitcheon 1998; Maher et al. 2009; Chang et al. 2016c; Zhang et al. 2018). For some igneous rocks, the magnetic inclusions in silicate, especially plagioclase, are establish to exist like in mineralogy with the corresponding whole rocks (e.g., Cottrell and Tarduno 1999, 2000). The magnetic inclusions are separated from external surround by the host silicate; thus, they can preserve the original signature equally long as the host silicates survive (e.g., Hounslow and Morton 2004; Tarduno et al. 2006). The mineralogy of the host silicates in sediments has been identified using magnetic extraction techniques. The reported host minerals include feldspars, quartz, pyroxenes, and possibly amphiboles and chlorite (Hounslow and Maher 1996; Chang et al. 2016c). Hounslow and Maher (1996) besides reported common occurrence of apatite, barite, and pyrite in their magnetic extract. Magnetic extraction gathers both discrete magnetic minerals and silicate-hosted inclusions, and so magnetism of the silicate-hosted inclusions cannot be studied by this technique lone. Previous studies of fluvial sediments successfully fingerprinted different sources by chemically digesting the discrete magnetic minerals to isolate the silicates with magnetic inclusions (Alekseeva and Hounslow 2014; Hounslow and Morton 2004; Maher et al. 2009). For marine sediments, the magnetism of magnetic inclusions has been only assessed via analysis of bulk magnetic measurements of pelagic carbonate (Chen et al. 2017) and pelagic blood-red clay (Zhang et al. 2018). Consequently, the detailed magnetic characteristics and the host mineral phases have not been well resolved. While it is proposed that magnetic inclusions tin can contribute to the magnetism of majority sediments (Chang et al. 2016c) specially for reducing environment (Chang et al. 2016a), direct quantification of the magnetic intensity of inclusions is defective. In this study, we utilise chemical digestion techniques to pelagic marine sediments to direct characterize the silicate-hosted magnetic inclusions, and to test the applicability of magnetic inclusions in provenance studies of such sediments.

Samples and geological background

Nosotros examine sediments from Integrated Ocean Drilling Programme (IODP) Site U1366. The site was drilled during Expedition 329 in the Southward Pacific Gyre (Fig. 1a). The sediments are mostly equanimous of ruddy-brown pelagic clay (Trek 329 Scientists 2011). The pore water is oxic throughout the sediment column (D'Hondt et al. 2015). Detailed stratigraphic correlation amidst multiple Holes at Site U1336 is not available, but the lithostratigraphy is expected to exist consequent among Holes (Expedition 329 Scientists 2011). The sediments are divided into 2 lithostratigraphic Units I and II. Unit of measurement I is subdivided into three Subunits Ia, Ib, and Ic. The major lithology of Subunit Ia and Ic is zeolitic metalliferous dirt, while Subunit Ib contains little amount of zeolite and loftier amount of oxide. Unit Two is but recognized in Hole 1366F, and characterized by very nighttime colour and the absence of zeolite. Dunlea et al. (2015a) statistically analyzed the chemical composition of sediments from Site U1366 and the other sites drilled during the Expedition 329, and modeled the compositional variations using end-member components. They identified 2 eolian cease-members: a component similar to post-Archean average Australian shale (PAAS), and a component similar to rhyolite. The former was interpreted as dust from Commonwealth of australia, and the latter every bit volcanic ash. The contribution of the "PAAS" end-member increases up-core roughly from Subunit Ib (Fig. 1b). Using a cobalt-based age model (Dunlea et al. 2015b) which assumes constant not-detrital cobalt flux, this trend was interpreted to reflect drying of Australia since Early Eocene. The contribution of the "rhyolite" end-member does not show articulate secular trend. We focus on samples from the acme fifteen m of Hole U1366C that covers Subunit Ia, Ib, and Ic. At Site U1365 which is ~ 900 km west from Site U1366, Shimono and Yamazaki (2016) reported that magnetism of bulk sediments is largely controlled by magnetofossils, especially in sediments older than ~ 23 Ma.

Fig. 1

Site locations and geochemical estimates of the eolian components. a A map showing the locations of Sites U1366 and U1365. Arrows indicate schematic annual boilerplate wind directions. b, c Depth variation of the contributions of the eolian geochemical end-members at Hole U1366D (b) and Hole U1366F (c) (Dunlea et al. 2015a). Red solid circles represent the "PAAS" end-fellow member and blue open squares "rhyolite" finish-member. Vertical dashed lines show the location of lithostratigraphic unit of measurement boundaries

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Several studies investigated the origin of quartz and feldspars in surface pelagic sediments in the South Pacific (Male monarch and Goldberg 1958; Peterson and Goldberg 1962; Clayton et al. 1972; Mokma et al. 1972). The abundance, grain size, and oxygen isotope ratios of quartz bespeak that most of this mineral in the western and key South Pacific is from Australia and New Zealand past eolian transport (Rex and Goldberg 1958; Clayton et al. 1972; Mokma et al. 1972), although some large (> 32 μm) quartz crystals may be from local volcanoes (Peterson and Goldberg 1962). Peterson and Goldberg (1962) discussed that feldspars in the S Pacific are mostly volcanic origin based on the geographical distribution of different types of feldspars and their close relationship with palagonite. Notwithstanding, they investigated feldspar crystals in size fractions of > 32 and four–8 μm, while the mode of the grain size distribution of South Pacific pelagic clay is ~ 2 μm for quartz (Mokma et al. 1972) and clay minerals (Rea and Bloomstine 1986). Therefore, the origin of the bulk of feldspars in the area has not however resolved.

Methods

Chemical separation

Overall, nosotros use sodium pyrosulfate (Na₂S_iiO₇) fusion technique to separate quartz and feldspars from the bulk sediments (Syers et al. 1968; Clayton et al. 1972; Blatt et al. 1982; Stevens 1991). Dry samples of ~ 0.iii g were first treated with citrate-sodium dithionite solution buffered with sodium bicarbonate to remove poorly crystalline Fe–Mn oxides also as fine-grained discrete magnetite (Rea and Janecek 1981; Hunt et al. 1995). The residues were freeze-dried and heated with Na₂S₂O_vii to 460 °C, so treated with 3 Due north HCl and washed with purified water. Then, the residues were heated to lxxx °C in one M NaOH overnight and washed with purified water. X-ray diffraction (XRD) assay was conducted using a diffractometer Rigaku MiniFlex Two with Cu Kα radiation at JAMSTEC to check the effectiveness of the chemical separation, and to evaluate feldspar mineralogy and qualitative abundance of mineral phases. Relative abundances of minerals were estimated by the reference intensity ratio method (Hubbard et al. 1976) using software Rigaku PDXL. Note that, during these procedure, subtle modifications of inclusions may take been occurred such equally magnetic domain country relaxation or alteration of thermally unstable minerals, although the effect on overall magnetism is often small compared to the stable magnetic inclusions (e.g., Tarduno et al. 2006). Therefore, the quartz and feldspars separates should be viewed as operationally defined materials.

Magnetic measurements

We analyzed the candy samples as well as untreated bulk sediment samples for comparison. To approximate the abundance of magnetic minerals, we measured mass-specific anhysteretic remanence (ARM) and saturation isothermal remanence (SIRM). ARM was imparted using cryogenic magnetometer systems at JAMSTEC (2G Enterprises 755R) and the Geological Survey Nihon (GSJ) (2G Enterprises 760) with a superlative alternating field of eighty mT and a DC bias field of 0.1 mT. IRM was imparted using a pulse magnetizer (2G Enterprises 660) with a two.v or 2.7 T field at JAMSTEC and GSJ. Remanences were measured using the cryogenic magnetometers. Some of the SIRM of the untreated samples were measured using a spinner magnetometer (Natsuhara-Giken SMM-85) at GSJ.

To characterize magnetic minerals, we examined the ratio of ARM susceptibility to SIRM (kARM/SIRM) and S ratios. The value of kARM/IRM depends on magnetic grain size (Robinson 1986) and magnetostatic interaction (Cisowski 1981), with smaller values indicate larger grain size and/or larger magnetostatic interaction. We used two back field magnitudes of 0.1 and 0.3 T to calculate 2 Due south ratios, S _−0.1 and S _−0.3, respectively. S _−0.3 measures the fraction of magnetization not carried by high-coercivity antiferromagnetic minerals such as hematite and goethite. S _−0.ane measures the fraction of low coercivity mineral magnetization. For fine-grained titanomagnetite expected to present in pelagic sediments, college S _−0.1 (lower coercivity of remanence) can exist related to higher titanium content (Day et al. 1977) as well as lower affluence of unmarried-domain grains. To further estimate magnetic mineralogy, we examined low-temperature magnetism using a Breakthrough Design MPMS-XL5 magnetometer at the Eye for Advanced Marine Core Research, Kochi University. Samples were first cooled from 300 to 6 K in five T field; and so, the temperature dependence of the remanence, m(T), was measured upon heating to 300 Chiliad in zilch field.

Results

Chemic separation

The chemical separate is white powders, and optical microscopic observations prove that it consists of transparent particles with typical size of a few μm (Fig. 2a). The chemically extracted quartz and feldspars make up 2.3–22.seven wt% of the bulk sediments (Tabular array 1). These values are broadly consequent with the quartz content in surface sediments at site MSN 125G (26°01′S, 155°59′W; ~ 1000 km east from Site U1366) and site MSN116P (35°fifty′South, 163°01′W; ~ 1350 km south–southeast from Site U1366) that are v and 19%, respectively (Clayton et al. 1972; Mokma et al. 1972). The content is markedly depression in lithostratigraphic Subunit Ib with an average of vi.8 wt% (Fig. 2b).

Fig. 2

a Representative optical microscope image of the quartz feldspars divide from sample from 0.37 CSF-A m. b Depth variation of the mass fraction of the quartz and feldspars separate. Vertical dashed lines represent lithostratigraphic unit boundaries

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Table 1 Summary of the characteristics of quartz and feldspars

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XRD analyses indicate that the mineral separates consist of quartz and feldspars (Fig. 3). Peaks respective to both plagioclase feldspar and potassium feldspar were detected (Fig. 3d). Peterson and Goldberg (1962) determined the plagioclase composition in surface sediments from the South Pacific using the separation between (131) and \((1\bar{3}1)\) peaks (Goodyear and Duffin 1954). In our samples, the \((one\bar{three}1)\) meridian was obscured by overlapping nearby peaks. Nonetheless, the separation is clearly less than 1.five°, pointing to albite-rich limerick. This is further checked using the separations between \(\left( {111} \right)\) and \((1\bar{1}ane)\), and \((\bar{ane}32)\) and \(\left( {131} \right)\) (Smith 1956). The separations were ~ 0.v°–0.vi° and ~ two.v°–ii.six°, respectively (Fig. 3e). These values also correspond to albite-rich composition with anorthosite content of 0–xx% (Smith 1956).

Fig. 3

Results of XRD analyses. a–c Representative diffractograms of untreated sample from i.73 m (a), quartz and feldspars from 1.73 g (b), and quartz and feldspars from xiv.92 m (c). Dashed lines represent reference diffraction patterns for quartz (a; RRUFFID = R110108), albite (b; RRUFFID = R040068), and sanidine (c; RUFFID = R060313) in capricious calibration. Data are downloaded from RRUFF project (http://rruff.info/). d Depth variation of the diffractograms for quartz and feldspars showing changing contribution of potassium feldspar and plagioclase. Each diffractograms are normalized by the summit of quartz (qz). Some peak identifications were given for potassium feldspar (Grand-fds) and plagioclase (pl) on the summit and bottom of the plot, respectively. e Blowup of diffractograms for plagioclase composition determination using the separations between \(\left( {111} \right)\) and \((1\bar{1}1)\) (left), and \((\bar{i}32)\) and \(\left( {131} \right)\) (correct)

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The tiptop positions do non vary much with depth, but relative intensities exercise. Nosotros estimate the mineral abundance using peaks effectually 13.8°, 14.9°, 20.8°, 22.0°, and 30.4° assuming mixing of quartz (Dušek et al. 2001), low albite (Armbruster et al. 1990), and sanidine (Marcille et al. 1993) (Fig. four). Potassium feldspar is detected beneath vii.38 m, and its abundance broadly decreases up-core. The affluence of plagioclase sharply increases between 8.26 and 7.38 k. The affluence of quartz is low beneath 13.43 k. These patterns represent to lithostratigraphic changes; Subunit Ia is characterized by the abundant plagioclase. Subunits Ib and Ic are transitional toward more potassium feldspar-rich composition down cadre, simply Subunit Ib appears to contain fewer plagioclase relative to quartz.

Fig. 4

Depth variation of silicate mineralogy of the quartz and feldspars separate. a Relative abundance of quartz (qz, filled circles), plagioclase (pl, open up triangles), and potassium feldspar (K-fds, crosses). b Stack plot of the relative abundance. Vertical dashed lines represent lithostratigraphic unit of measurement boundaries

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Magnetic measurements

The magnetic data of the quartz and feldspars are summarized in Table 1, and that of the untreated bulk samples are in Table two. The ARM intensities of the quartz and feldspars range from iii.05 × 10⁻⁵ to 2.70 × 10⁻⁴ Am²/kg, and SIRM intensities from 7.45 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.98 × 10⁻³ Am²/kg (Table i). Together with the mass fraction of the quartz and feldspars, these values stand for to less than one.02% of remanence intensity of untreated bulk samples. Both ARM and SIRM are college and by and large decreasing up-cadre to ten.42 1000, and stay most abiding above 8.26 m (Fig. v). The kARM/SIRM values of the quartz and feldspars range from 0.326 to ane.08 mm/A, which is significantly lower than the values of untreated samples (0.839–2.29 mm/A; Fig. 6a, b), possibly reflecting the digestion of biogenic magnetite. The kARM/SIRM values of the quartz and feldspars drop from Subunit Ic to Ib, while for untreated samples it is from Subunit Ib to Ia. The S ratios of the quartz and feldspars are lower than that of untreated samples (Fig. 6c, d), which is also explained by the loss of relatively low coercivity biogenic magnetite. Withal, the Due south-_0.three values are high, indicating that antiferromagnetic minerals such as hematite do non contribute much to the magnetism of the quartz and feldspars. The S _−0.ane values are higher in Subunit Ic (~ 0.9) and decrease toward Subunit Ia (~ 0.75); within Subunit Ia, the Southward _−0.1 values exercise non vary much.

Table 2 Summary of the magnetic properties of the untreated samples

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Fig. v

Depth variation of remanence intensities of quartz and feldspars; ARM (a) and SIRM (b). Vertical dashed lines represent lithostratigraphic unit boundaries

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Fig. 6

Depth variation of magnetic backdrop. Vertical dashed lines stand for lithostratigraphic unit boundaries. a, b The kARM/SIRM ratios of quartz and feldspars (a) and untreated samples (b). c The S _−0.1 values of quartz and feldspars (solid circles) and untreated samples (open triangles). d The S _−0.3 values of quartz and feldspars (solid circles) and untreated samples (open triangles)

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Low-temperature measurements of the quartz and feldspars detect the Verwey transition of magnetite at around 120 Chiliad, while untreated samples do not show the transition (Fig. 7a–c). The Verwey transition temperature of 120 K is consistent with some bulk sediments from elsewhere containing detrital magnetite (Chang et al. 2016b). The absence of the clear Verwey transition in untreated samples is consistent with the behavior reported from Site U1365 (Shimono and Yamazaki 2016), and almost likely it reflects oxidation of discrete magnetic minerals in the oxic sediments. The magnitude of the demagnetization associated with the Verwey transition in the quartz and feldspars appears to vary with depth (Fig. 7d). We quantify the demagnetization magnitude as follows (Fig. 7e). First, we fit a straight line to the remanence between 130 and 150 1000. Then, we extrapolated the line to eighty K to calculate an expected remanence, grand _est (80 K). Finally, the demagnetization magnitude is approximated by the difference m(80 K) −m _est (80 Thousand) normalized by chiliad(300 K). The analysis indicates that the Verwey transition becomes more meaning up-core from Subunit Ic to Ib, and stable in Subunit Ia (Fig. 7f). The transition temperature is indistinguishable regardless the magnitude of the demagnetization (Fig. 7c).

Fig. 7

Low-temperature magnetism. a, b Representative thermal demagnetization of depression-temperature remanence normalized by the remanence at 300 K of quartz and feldspars (a) and untreated sample (b) from 0.37 m. c Temperature derivative of thermal demagnetization around 120 K highlighting the Verwey transition. Open squares represent untreated samples from 0.37 grand (left scale). Solid circles and crosses represent quartz and feldspars from 0.37 and fourteen.92 m, respectively (right scale). d Depth variation of low-temperature demagnetization behavior of the quartz and feldspars around the Verwey transition. e The graphical caption for quantification of the demagnetization across the Verwey transition. f The demagnetization across the Verwey transition versus depth. Vertical dashed lines represent lithostratigraphic unit boundaries

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Give-and-take

Plagioclase mineralogy of surface sediments in the South Pacific

Our XRD information on chemically separated quartz and feldspars bespeak that the upper ~ seven.four 1000 of the sediments from Pigsty U1366C contains albite-rich plagioclase (Fig. 3e). This plagioclase limerick is different from the mineralogy reported by Peterson and Goldberg (1962) for coarser fraction (> four μm), which showed labradolite to andesene composition in the area surrounding Site U1366 from ~ 170°West to ~ 130°Due west. For the entire South Pacific, they study variable plagioclase feldspar composition, but very express occurrence of albite. Nosotros contend that Peterson and Goldberg (1962) may accept overlooked fine-grained eolian albite, because they only analyzed grains larger than 4 μm. Similar results were obtained previously for quartz; Peterson and Goldberg (1962) identified large quartz crystals of volcanic origin based on microscopic observation of morphology, while Mokma et al. (1972) showed that bulk quartz exhibits continental oxygen isotope ratios.

Magnetism and host silicate mineralogy

To a showtime order, the depth profiles of the relative abundance of silicate minerals (Fig. 4) and magnetism (Figs. five, 6, vii) can be viewed equally either monotonic increment or subtract. Therefore, the modify in magnetism may reflect mainly the modify in the silicate mineralogy, with each silicate has constant magnetic properties throughout the studied interval. While information technology is also possible that the magnetism of each silicate minerals varies with depth, here we briefly point out the correlations and advise simple models to explicate them. Both ARM and SIRM decrease up-core (Fig. 5). This blueprint broadly agrees with the decrease of potassium feldspar content and the increase in quartz and plagioclase. Thus, potassium feldspar is likely to be more than magnetic per weight than quartz and/or plagioclase. The upward-core subtract of the S _−0.1 values (Fig. 6c) and the increase in demagnetization beyond the Verwey transition (Fig. 7e) are hard to explain in a simple mode. The S _−0.1 values imply more impurity and/or finer grain size for upper part, while the Verwey transition suggests the reverse. A possible solution is that quartz and plagioclase back-trail unlike magnetic mineralogy to each other, and then that either one of them contains high-coercivity titanomagnetite, while another contains stoichiometric magnetite. This hypothesis, too as the supposition that the magnetism of each silicate mineral is constant in the studied interval, may be tested past an additional chemic digestion step using H₂SiF_six to divide monomineralic quartz (Syers et al. 1968).

Several studies reported that plagioclase feldspars sometimes contain near-stoichiometric, needle-shaped magnetite exsolutions with high magnetic stability (east.thousand., Hargraves and Young 1969; Davis 1981; Usui et al. 2006; Wenk et al. 2011; Usui et al. 2015). Such exsolved magnetite exhibits not-interacting single-domain-similar behaviors (Evans et al. 1968; Sato et al. 2015) including high kARM/SIRM values of ~ two.5 mm/A for a 70 μT DC field for ARM (Cisowski 1981; Usui et al. 2015). The quartz and feldspars studied here prove much lower kARM/SIRM. This suggests that exsolved magnetite is non a major remanence carrier in our samples.

It has been assumed that magnetic inclusions in bulk sediments can be characterized by specific magnetic properties such as unmarried-domain signature (Chen et al. 2017) or strong magnetic interactions (Zhang et al. 2018). In this report, fifty-fifty though we exclusively measured magnetism of magnetic inclusions hosted in quartz and feldspars, the magnetic properties vary considerably with depth. This demonstrates that, without direct measurements such as those in this study, or independent prove for uniformity in magnetic inclusions, it would exist difficult to extract the signature of magnetic inclusions from bulk measurements.

Implication for secular change in eolian component at Site U1366

The changes in the magnetism of the quartz and feldspars observed in this study prove both similarities and differences compared to the changes in the contribution of the eolian components estimated by geochemical terminate-member assay (Dunlea et al. 2015a). The XRD analyses indicate that the affluence of albite-rich plagioclase and quartz increases toward the Subunit Ia. These changes correlate with the increase in the "PAAS" end-member to Subunit Ia (Fig. 1), which is likely to come from Australia (Dunlea et al. 2015a). Thus, we interpret that the Australian grit is characterized by either or both of quartz and albite-rich plagioclase. Peterson and Goldberg (1962) argued that plagioclase and potassium feldspar in the South Pacific are volcanic rather than continental origin. If this is the example, the correlation between plagioclase and the "PAAS" finish-member may reverberate a change in wind pattern to bring both volcanic materials with plagioclase and Australian dust to Site U1366. However, Peterson and Goldberg (1962) simply analyzed grains larger than four μm that may non be representative of the bulk feldspars, and they did not detect albite-rich plagioclase plant in this study. Therefore, information technology is also possible that albite-rich plagioclase is in the Australian grit. Future investigation of spatial distribution of plagioclase and quartz would help resolving the origin of plagioclase in this region.

The upwardly-core subtract in remanence intensities and disappearance of the potassium feldspar do not match with the geochemical stop-member behavior. The contribution of the "PAAS" end-member increases up-cadre, and the "rhyolite" end-fellow member stays roughly constant in this interval (Fig. 1). These data may exist reconciled if there are multiple sources for the "rhyolite" stop-member, and if simply some of them supply potassium feldspar with abundant magnetic inclusions. The Co-based age model (Dunlea et al. 2015b) suggests that the Subunit Ib/Ic boundary is 40–70 Ma. If the "rhyolite" end-member represents volcanic ash, it is plausible that volcanic action changes in tens of millions of years, and that the plate motion brings different volcanic regions closer to the site. In surface sediments of the South Pacific, sanidine has been reported mainly around E Pacific Rise (Murray and Renard 1891; Peterson and Goldberg 1962), then more proximal position to the spreading ridge in the past could explain the presence of potassium feldspar restricted to the deep interval. Additional studies using other proxies such equally radiogenic isotopes also as refinement of chronology volition clarify the relationship amidst mineralogy, magnetism, and geochemistry of the sediments. In whatsoever case, these results demonstrate that the magnetic method using magnetic inclusions can provide additional constraints on the provenance of eolian component in pelagic dirt.

In Subunit Ib, the mass fraction of quartz and feldspars is low (Fig. 2b). Dunlea et al. (2015a) reported higher contribution of the "Fe–Mn oxyhydroxide" geochemical stop-member in Subunit Ib (~ 30–twoscore wt%). However, the contribution of either "PAAS" or "rhyolite" end-member is not specially low compared to Subunit Ia or Ic (Fig. one). Therefore, the low abundance of quartz and feldspars in Subunit Ib cannot exist explained by dilution with non-eolian components, and it should reflect characteristics of the eolian component itself. Subseafloor alteration of feldspars may explicate the low content of quartz plus feldspars. Dunlea et al. (2015b) estimated slower sedimentation rate of Subunit Ib than Ia, which could promote amending of feldspars to clay minerals that in plough would deliquesce in the chemical digestion. However, the estimated sedimentation rate of Subunit Ib is not slower than Subunit Ic. Thus, nosotros consider subseafloor alteration does not affect significantly the abundance and mineralogy of quartz and feldspars. Alternatively, they may but reflect the mineralogy of the original eolian dust. It is even so unclear if these characteristics represent the source signature, or they involve sorting during the dust transport. Dubois et al. (2014) reported nearly homogeneous mean grain size of bulk sediments at Site U1366. This might prove roughly abiding distance to the source and/or wind intensity (Rea 1994). However, the majority sediments includes authigenic component such as zeolite or biogenic component, so analyses of eolian component (due east.g., Rea 1994) or mineral separates (Kawahata et al. 2000) is necessary to constrain the modification during the dust ship.

Evaluating the importance of magnetic inclusions to sediments magnetism

On the footing of a numerical modeling of remanence acquisition, Chang et al. (2016c) demonstrated that magnetic inclusions can record paleomagnetic signals. Our data stand for get-go straight measurements of remanence intensity of magnetic inclusions in pelagic dirt. Although our chemical separation process dissolves some candidate host minerals of magnetic inclusions, especially pyroxenes, quartz, and feldspars are frequently the dominant non-clay minerals in eolian dust (Blank et al. 1985; Leinen et al. 1994) and surface soil (Nickovic et al. 2012). Hither, we evaluate the potential contribution of magnetic inclusions to bulk magnetic signals using the remanence intensities of our quartz and feldspars. Our data demonstrate that magnetic inclusions in quartz and feldspars contribute very piddling (< 1.02% of SIRM) to the majority magnetism at Site U1366 pelagic clay. This may exist due to a high abundance of biogenic magnetite in pelagic crimson dirt (Yamazaki and Shimono 2013; Shimono and Yamazaki 2016; Usui et al. 2017) equally suggested past high kARM/IRM of untreated samples. However, the following consideration shows that the contribution of magnetic inclusions to original eolian dust is likely to exist pocket-size fifty-fifty without the contribution of biogenic magnetite. Shimono and Yamazaki (2016) performed IRM acquisition analysis using log-Gaussian decomposition technique (Kruiver et al. 2001) for sediments from Site U1365 and found that a component relating to biogenic magnetite accounts for xl–65% of SIRM. Assuming that the remaining SIRM is carried by detrital magnetite, and that the magnetic components are similar at Site U1366, this number indicates that magnetic inclusions in quartz and feldspars represent only a few % of remanence carried by detrital magnetite in oxic pelagic sediments. In oxic crimson clay, the original titanomagnetite would be oxidized to less-magnetic titanomaghemite. Therefore, this number should exist viewed every bit an upper bound. This pocket-size number also indicates that direct separation such equally chemic digestion applied here is necessary to read the magnetic information carried past magnetic inclusions.

Magnetic inclusions may be more of import in reducing environment because reductive diagenesis dissolves detached detrital magnetic minerals (Chang et al. 2016a). If magnetic inclusions have SIRM intensity of ten⁻³ Am²/kg, only 0.one mg of silicate minerals is required to measure out SIRM with standard cryogenic magnetometers. The contribution to natural remanence (NRM) depends on NRM acquisition efficiency; if we assume NRM/SIRM to be 0.ane%, 100 mg of silicate minerals would be required to deport measurable NRM.

Recently, Chen et al. (2017) proposed that magnetic inclusions contributed significantly to the total bulk natural remanence in pelagic carbonate from the eastern fundamental equatorial Pacific. They analyzed coercivity distribution of the sediments and showed that detrital magnetic minerals and biogenic magnetite carry similar SIRM of 0.01–0.02 A/1000, respectively, in the sediments. They further argued that the detrital magnetic minerals are inclusions in silicate, based on the single-domain-like behavior and microscopic ascertainment of magnetic separates. Assuming 10⁻ⁱⁱⁱ Am²/kg of SIRM for magnetic inclusions, their estimated SIRM of detrital magnetic minerals is translated to 10–20 mg of silicate per 1 cm³ of majority sediments. With the average sedimentation rate of 15 mm/kyr adamant for the sediments (Chen et al. 2017), this is farther translated to inclusion-hosting silicate flux of 15–30 mg/(cm² kyr). This number seems to be too loftier for equatorial Pacific; the total eolian dust flux including dirt minerals to surface sediments is estimated to exist effectually 10–thirty mg/(cmⁱⁱ kyr) in this region (Uematsu et al. 1983; Rea 1994; Jacobel et al. 2017), and the quartz and feldspars content in eolian dust is typically ~ 10–20% (Bare et al. 1985; Leinen et al. 1994). Therefore, we feel that the sediments studied by Chen et al. (2017) also comprise discrete magnetic minerals. Nevertheless, the to a higher place-mentioned eolian dust flux in the equatorial Pacific and typical quartz and feldspars content suggest that the flux of inclusion-hosting silicate can be ~ 1–five mg/(cmⁱⁱ kyr). In this case, our data of SIRM intensity of 10^−three Am²/kg indicate that magnetic inclusions may account for tens of % of the SIRM of the sediments studied by Chen et al. (2017). This number is larger than the contribution of the magnetic inclusions to total detrital magnetic minerals estimated earlier for pelagic sediments at Site U1366 (a few %), suggesting that the carbonate studied by Chen et al. (2017) may have experienced reductive diagenesis to reduce the detrital magnetic minerals. Overall, our information support the general conclusion that magnetic inclusions can contribute sediment magnetism significantly (Chang et al. 2016a, c; Chen et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2018).

Conclusions

Quartz and feldspars are separated from pelagic ruby-red clay from IODP Site U1366 by Na_twoS₂O₇ fusion technique. These minerals business relationship for ii.3–22.7 wt% of the samples and showed ARM intensity of 3.05 × ten^−v to 2.70 × 10⁻⁴ Am²/kg and SIRM intensity of 7.45 × 10^−four to 1.98 × 10⁻³ Am^two/kg. These values account for less than i.02% of the remanence intensities of untreated samples.

XRD analyses of feldspar mineralogy showed that potassium feldspar is most abundant in Subunit Ic, and albite-rich plagioclase in Subunit Ia. The presence of albite-rich plagioclase differs from a previous regional study (Peterson and Goldberg 1962). We consider this is considering the previous written report only measures feldspars larger than 4 μm, and disregarded fine-grained eolian albite. The silicate mineralogy and their magnetic properties vary considerably with depth. This warns that bulk measurements solitary may exist bereft to separate the signature of magnetic inclusions in sediments.

The up-cadre increment in the plagioclase and quartz correlates with the increase in the geochemical "PAAS" stop-ember (Dunlea et al. 2015a). We interpret that the quartz and/or albite-rich plagioclase above this interval is transported from Australia via eolian process. This besides correlates with the up-core increase in demagnetization across the Verwey transition, suggesting that the quartz and/or plagioclase contains stoichiometric magnetite. The upward-core decrease of the potassium feldspar and remanence intensities do not lucifer with the variation of eolian cease-members. We suggest that the potassium feldspar traces hidden subdivision of the geochemical "rhyolite" cease-member (Dunlea et al. 2015b). Additional study using other provenance fingerprints such as radiogenic isotopes is needed to test this hypothesis.

The remanence intensities of the mineral inclusions studied here indicate that the magnetic inclusions in feldspars and quartz are non important remanence carriers in oxic pelagic sediments; yet, they may exist important in anoxic sediments where reductive diagenesis dissolves detached magnetic minerals. Further investigations using mineral separation techniques on magnetic inclusions are necessary to evaluate the importance of silicate-hosted inclusions to ecology magnetism and paleomagnetism.

Abbreviations

JAMSTEC:

Nippon Bureau for Marine-World Scientific discipline and Applied science

GSJ:

Geological Survey of Japan

PAAS:

postal service-Archean average Australian shale

XRD:

10-ray diffraction

SIRM:

saturation isothermal remanence

IRM:

isothermal remanence

ARM:

anhysteretic remanence

NRM:

natural remanence

IODP:

Integrated Ocean Drilling Program

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Authors' contributions

YU designed the study, conducted chemical separation, XRD analysis, and magnetic measurements of feldspars and quartz. TS conducted magnetic measurements of untreated samples. YU, TS, and TY interpreted the data. YU wrote the paper with input from TS and TY. All authors read and canonical the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. Teruhiko Kashiwabara for suggesting measuring magnetism of quartz in sediments. We also give thanks the editor John Tarduno, the reviewer Dr. Liao Chang, and two anonymous reviewers for effective comments. This study was performed under the cooperative inquiry plan of Center for Advanced Marine Core Inquiry (CMCR), Kochi University (17A063). We thank Prof. Yuhji Yamamoto for help in MPMS measurements at CMCR. This inquiry used samples provided by IODP.

Competing interests

The authors declare they take no competing interests.

Availability of data and materials

Data are available in Zenodo data repository (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1414602).

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Funding

This study is supported by JSPS KAKENHI JP17H01361.

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Affiliations

1. Section of Deep Earth Structure and Dynamics Research, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan

   Yoichi Usui

2. Gas Hydrate Research Laboratory, Meiji University, Kanda-Surugadai, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan

   Takaya Shimono

3. Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, The Academy of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan

   Toshitsugu Yamazaki

Respective author

Correspondence to Yoichi Usui.

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Usui, Y., Shimono, T. & Yamazaki, T. Rock magnetism of quartz and feldspars chemically separated from pelagic red clay: a new approach to provenance study. Earth Planets Space 70, 153 (2018). https://doi.org/ten.1186/s40623-018-0918-1

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• Received: 08 May 2018

• Accustomed: 05 September 2018

• Published: 26 September 2018

• DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40623-018-0918-1

Keywords

• Magnetic inclusions
• South Pacific Roll
• Eolian dust
• Environmental magnetism

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